WINTER BIRDING

Many people do not realize that just because we are in mid-winter that there is still plenty of wildlife to observe, especially birds. These fall into three categories: First are those birds which live here year round. They include Nuthatches, Chickadees, Titmice, and various woodpeckers, among others. Then there are birds that move into our area for the winter and then depart again in the spring. Our friendly little White-throated Sparrow (see left) is in that group and its song is one of the most delightful of all bird songs. It appears in our area around mid-October and leaves for the north some time in April. Its cousins, the White-crowned Sparrow and Dark-eyed Juncos are also considered winter birds although both may be found year round in higher elevations. The third group are those birds that appear only in certain winters, usually as a result of food shortages further north. The great eruption in Pine Siskins during the winter of 2008-09 is a good example. We do not see this third types every winter.

Any of these birds, including the rarities mentioned above may appear on or under your winter feeders. That is one thing nice about winter birding: you don't have to don boots and Mackinaws to go out looking for winter birds; if your habitat is right, you can bring the birds into you while you sit inside in front of a window near the fire place with your binocs in one hand and a hot toddy in the other. It is more civilized this latter way. But you do need to have trees and particularly, shrubs, nearby for the birds to rest between feeding forays to your feeder. They need cover and if you do not have it, you may not expect much besides House Sparrows and Starlings. Habitat is everything. Once I lived right next to a woods not many yards away and I lured nice birds like Thrushes and Towhees out of the woods where they normally live. Too far away and I would not have seen them.

Type of food and feeders you put out also makes a difference in what kind of birds you can attract. Don't go for the cheap-O brands at K Mart; these contain too much filler that interesting song birds don't eat. You will get lots of pigeons though which like to feed on all the junk dropped to the ground by all the better birds. Put out some suet feeders around the house or close to the woods and you will see a variety of woodpeckers, e.g., Downy, Hairy, and Pileated (see right). Although you may see these birds visit your feeder anytime during the winter, mine seem to visit more often towards the onset of nesting season. Getting a resplendent Pileated Woodpecker to visit your feeder regularly is truly a wonderful accomplishment.


Well, maybe you live in an apartment on the tenth floor or your yard is in a overly-manicured development in which all the trees and shrubs were removed by the bulldozers before the houses went up and maybe you don't like to trudge through the ice and snow in search of winter birds in the wild; what to do? Cheer - up all is not lost. Set up a card table under some good lighting, obtain some good 140 pound rag paper, some paint brushes and some water colors. Now you can see any kind of bird you would care to. By the vicarious means of water colors, you can bring the birds right in to you (see above and below) and do your winter birding in front of the fire with some Christmas carols playing on the stereo.







Merry Christmas, Everybody!

A BIRD BY ANY OTHER NAME

Did you ever think how birds got their names? Some of them are holdovers from the U.K., but others got their names in America back in the days when a day of birding meant just that; you spent the day afield before bird guides and binoculars were useful. Any bird seen was shot and not with a camera. Shotguns loaded with very fine shot (bird shot) were used to bag the unknown. After a day afield, the birders gathered around a table and passed the birds around noting such characteristics as type of bill, colors, wing bars, etc. After naming as many as they could, the skins with feathers were preserved and used for later study and comparison; the rest were cooked up for all to savor, e.g. four and twenty blackbirds all baked in a pie sort of thing.

Observing the birds at or in hand so to speak enabled the birders to see characteristics not easily observed in the filed. Ever wonder how the Red-Bellied Woodpecker (above left) got its name? The slight rosy blush to the feathers on the abdomen would fit this name, but it is hardly a field characteristic. What about the Ring-necked Duck? Same thing; a duck hunter could see this thin light-colored band around the duck's neck, but this is hardly visible to the observer of living birds on the wing. There is a distinctive and easily seen ring around the bill of this species, (see left) however, and wonders why they were not called Ring-billed Ducks instead; it would make more sense. I defy anyone to explain to me how the name Purple Sandpiper is relevant to that species of shorebird. Speaking of Sandpipers, neither Western nor Semi-palmated have any field relevance today.

And don't get me started on Warblers! Nashville, Connecticut, Kentucky, Orange-crowned, Tennessee are just a few approved warbler names that have no field relevance to the birder trying to make sense of this complicated group.

Two closely-related species of woodpeckers possess names that are difficult to fathom even amongst seasoned birders, the Downy and the Hairy. What do these names refer to? Again, the names are based on characteristics that can only be seen when the birds are passed around the table at the end of a day's birding. The terms refer to the quality of the feathers around the beak of the bill; they are much finer in the Downy compared to the coarser ones of the Hairy (left), characteristics not seen in the field even with binoculars.l

I like the Little Blue Heron, so named because of its size relationship to the Great Blue Heron. Beginners, not knowing this, are puzzled when they discover that the color of the immature, or "little", member of this species is white! So why not Little White Heron? I was once asked why Little Blue Herons are white when they are young and I answered, "for the same reason that blackeberries are red when they are green." The neophyte stomped off in a huff.

From time those in charge of standardizing bird names suggest that American species with European counterparts retain the names in common use in England. I see several problems with this. Fir example, although I think the Brit name for what we call a Common Loon, Diver, makes more sense, I doubt that the latter will ever take over in the US of A. For one thing, Loon is so well entrenched in American bird lore, e.g., "Crazy as a Loon". "Crazy as a Diver" just doesn't cut it! Similarly, I don't think we should adopt the Brit name for some of their hawks; they call them buzzards. We have spent too many years getting American rustics to quit shooting "buzzards", a term embedded in pioneer lore for any rapacious bird that carries off lambs and babies. When the term "buzzard" is used in American, it is usually misapplied to vultures.

But where I think the biggest stumbling block in America would be encountered in adopting British terms would be as applied to the Family, Paridae. I don't think the term, Carolina Tit, will catch on here, at least for our friendly little winter bird!

MUSHROOMS CAN BITE IN OTHER WAYS

We are all familiar with the many ways that mushrooms may cause toxic or fatal reactions after eating them. This is bad enough, but the subjects of my interest and admiration have found other sneakier ways to do us in as well!

Although the myth persists that the explanation for the occasional toxicity seen with certain mushrooms in only some individuals, but not all, after ingestion is one due to allergy, real evidence to support this popular assertion is very hard to come by. I am aware of one case following eating of Sulfur Shelfs that almost certainly was an allergy. The symptoms were not from the intestinal tract however; they were referable to the skin in the form of hives and most seriously, some initial tightening of the larynx. The mushroom was not fresh and one other person ate parts of the same mushroom without ill effect.

I also have only been able to find but one case of a person breaking out in a rash (something like poison ivy) from merely handling a mushroom, but even this case was not clear cut. It occurred in a worker who grew mushrooms commercially and in addition to his contact with the mushrooms, he had recently sprayed them with an insecticide, a material much more likely to have caused his rash.

Speaking of mushroom growers, they have other problems. A disease known as hypersensitivity pneumonitis sometimes occurs in these people. This disease is a much more serious and complicated form of allergy and is usually due to the bacteria and molds that grow in the compost, but some cases have been reported from Japan where it was caused by the spores of the mushroom being cultivated, Pleurotus ostreatus, our common Oyster Mushroom. This is commonly found in supermarkets these days, but there is no harm from them to the ordinary consumer.


In New Jersey, a few people suffering from seasonal hay fever were found to be sensitive to mold spores rather than pollen. The air was unusually laden with fungal spores. It appeared that the offending agent was spores from Ganoderma applanatum (Artist Conch) which enjoyed a particularly heavy fruiting in that locality and which produces prodigious amounts of spores.

One form of endocarditis results from microorganisms, usually bacteria, growing on diseased heart valves. It is a chronic, serious disease unless treated properly. In 1971 a man died from this disease after failing to respond to conventional antibiotic therapy which is extremely effective against bacterial causes of this disease. His heart valves proved to be infected with a fungus that most of the medical mycologists could not identity. Cultures of it were sent to various laboratories and finally an agricultural lab figured out that it was the imperfect (non-fruiting) stage of a Coprinus most likely Coprinus lagopus.

That covers intestinal, pulmonary, and even cardiac systems, but there is one more and much more common. Enthusiasts who examine mushrooms closely often resort to breaking apart the specimen in various ways and in so doing, tiny amounts of liquid may get on the fingers. No problem unless you later happen to absent-mindedly wipe your eyes with these same fingers. This will produce an intense burning which may require medical treatment. The juice of the mushroom (Lentinellus ursinus, the Bear Mushroom) is extremely acrid in taste as well.

Then there is a guy I know who got chased out of a pasture by an enraged bull while he was collecting mushrooms, but that is another story.

The Mighty Potomac

The Mighty Potomac

George Washington's river, the mighty Potomac, has its origins high in the mountains of West Virginia. It is composed of the two main branches which meet near Greenspring, West Virginia east of Cumberland, Maryland and forms the Maryland—West Virginia and the Maryland—Virginia borders as it wanders to the sea. For a long time the North Branch, which originates where the extreme southwestern tip of Maryland cuts down into West Virginia's eastern panhandle, was considered main source of the Potomac and indeed the Fairfax Stone marks that historic spot. Today we know the much longer and more scenic South Branch which originates high in the Appalachian Mountains in Pendleton County, is the true source of the river.

Every school boy knows the story of George Washington's mighty heave of a silver dollar across the Potomac and of his beautiful home, Mount Vernon, located high on the banks of the lower river. Anyone who cherishes this tradition has never seen how wide the Potomac is at this point and no one has the prowess to accomplish such a feat. The legend probably refers to the upper Rappahannock River instead. Unfortunately, few realize that the father of our country also traveled on and was familiar with the upper reaches of this river, the sections that West Virginians know and love so well. Between Moorefield and Romney, the South Branch courses in a northeasterly direction through a magnificient gorge, the walls of which at times are almost perpendicular. This section, locally known as the "Trough," was explored by Washington in 1748. He described it as ". . . a couple of mountains impassable, running side and side together for seven or eight miles, and ye river running down between them."

The history-laden South Branch has been the scene of bitter Indian wars, as well as parts of the Civil War. Romney was the site of a key fort during the Civil War. Caves overlooking the famous Smokehole section of the South Branch were used as sources of saltpeter from Revolutionary times, as hide-away spots from Indian raiding parties, and even as the site of whiskey stills by some of our more enterprising ancestors. Today the South Branch Valley between Petersburg and the head of the Trough is the home of many industrious farmers whose rich, productive lands add to the beauty of the landscape against the majestic background of the ever-present mountains. Yet within easy reach upstream into the Smokehole country or downstream into the Trough, paddlers can find wild areas of unparalleled beauty.

For the paddler who would want to tour the river, there is a tremendous variety of scenery and type of paddling available. For almost 120 miles, the paddler can find delightful stretches of water to suit any taste. The whitewater buff begins his run by putting in near Franklin, West Virginia at the intersection of U.S. 33 and 220. Early in the spring when the warm sun releases the water from winter's icy grip, the Smokehole run is considered tops in beauty by paddlers from all over the East. After paddling above the hamlet of Upper Tract and passing through some open farm land along U.S. 220, the paddler enters the Smokehole canyon. The water tumbles furiously down the 22 feet per mile gradient creating complex, but invigorating Class 3 action. Soon the paddler reaches an area where a landslide has blocked the river. This is portaged by novices, but can be safely run by experienced whitewater buffs. The river continues its wild pace through the U.S. Forest Service campground and recreation area, an ideal overnight spot of the canoe-campers. This is located 22 miles from the put-in.

High on the right one may see Cave Mountain, a spelunker's delight. One more somewhat challenging rapids is encountered seven miles below the campground, but the water gradually becomes calmer, picks up its ripsnorter of a sister, the North Fork of the South Branch, and proceeds to Petersburg, West Virginia along State Routes 4 and 28. The water in the 21 mile trip
below the campground is of Class 1-2 complexity and a favorite with spring paddlers. Although the upper Smokehole Gorge is extremely scenic, the paddler will find attention glued to the complexity of the rapids.

Below Petersburg, the mountains recede and the South Branch flows swiftly but gently to Moorefield- some 17 miles awav. In and around Moorefield there are many stately, ante-bellum mansions maintained by historic families. Although the South Branch has more volume, the gradient is such that the rapids are not dificult and consist of gentle riffles or small ledges, easily negotiated by the well-coached novice. It is at Moorefield that the South Branch is further swollen by its confluence with its South Fork or the Moorefield River, a Class 3-4 boat buster. Most paddlers who are not expert whitewater buffs will want to start their trip on the South Branch at the U.S. 220 bridge at Old Fields, five miles downstream from Moorefield, the scene of
many an early Indian-settler skirmish. For four miles the river meanders through pleasant farm
land and picks up speed here and there to form zesty riffles. Soon the river makes a right-hand turn over a ledge into an exciting chute of haystacks under the railroad bridge that gives the paddler a nice roller-coaster ride.

The sight that greets the paddler and never fails to impress one is the gateway to the Trough. Here, the grandeur of the mountains provides mile after mile of eye-catching scenery. For the last several years an exciting new devlopment has occurred just below the bridge and that is the influx of Bal Eagles to the area indicating a much-welcomed return of wildlife habitat for these magnificent creatures. It is not too hard to see at least one of their nests. The vistas continue for another seven miles when the river again enters broader farm land. There are not many rapids in the Trough and only the occasional glimpse of railroad tracks on the left remind you that you are not traveling down the river with George Washington's surveying party. The long, flat pools of the Trough are reminiscent of Canadian lakes. The bass fishing along the 24 mile stretch between the towns of Moorefield and Romney is well known and is fantastic.

For the rest of the 34 miles from Romnev to its junction with the North Branch, the river meanders peacefully with only occasional riffles. The highways are usually near enough so that the trip can be broken up into smaller segments. Campsites, both in the Trough and downstream, are usually found, but be sure to obtain permission. Excellent tourist accommodations may be found at Franklin, Petersburg, Moorefield and Romney. In the same general area, one is in easy driving distance to the historic Shenandoah Valley—Harper's Ferry area of West Virginia and to the new Spruce Knob—Seneca Rocks National Recreation Area.

The upper part of the South Branch can only be run in the spring, but below Petersburg the river volume is such that it can be floated most of the year. The South Branch Valley, as the case
with much of the east, has suffered several summers of extreme dryness. At times such as these,
the canoeing is poor, so it is wise to check river levels first before entering the river or you might
end up taking a hike pulling your boat through all of the shallow places.

More treasures are encountered for the seasoned river rat after the South and North Branches combine at Greenspring. Two in particular are worth noting: one is the Paw Paw Bends section whch begins near Paw Paw WV and transcribes huge loops alongside the C and O Canal pathway, now a National Historic Park. Near the beginning of this section, the early canal builders decided to carve a tunnel for the canal waterway through a mountain. It begins and the put in. The paddler will then spend some time navigating some of these wide loops and will come across a "hiker-biker" overnight camp site, right at the other end of the same tunnel! One could easily leave a car at the put in, paddle this distance and then portage the boat back through the tunnel to the car.

The last place in West Virginia that the Potomac touches is a dandy, Harpers Ferry, a nationally significant location and a National Historic Site itself. For the paddler, the last part of the Potomac rushes down a series of parallel ledges, called the "Needles", and joins the grand Shenandoah River, a wonderfully historic waterway in itself. What a fitting end for West Virginia's part of our Heritage River!

MUSHROOMING AT THE SUPERMARKET

It occurred to me that with so many kinds of mushrooms now becoming available through mail order, specialty delis, and even chain supermarkets, that a guide through the various species available and what to do with them might be of interest. I am amazed how many kinds I am able to buy at my local Kroger's or Giant Eagle supermarkets. Others are available from small stores that cater to Oriental and Asian folks and I sometimes take a trip up to the legendary Strip District of Pittsburgh, a veritable cornucopia of foods from around the world. I do not regard my home of Morgantown WV as a very cosmopolitan place, but we have two small, Asian markets in which to shop.

The Commoners

Starting right off, all of us can buy the ordinary Agaricus bisporus, the usual mushroom you can buy either fresh or canned. This is a "tamed" relative of the Meadow Agaric (Agaricus campestris) that has been cultivated for so many decades that a different species has evolved, one that has only 2-spored basidia rather than the usual 4. The canned mushrooms are extremely bland in comparison to the fresh which in turn are extremely bland compared to the wild A. campestris, but still both are convenient, they're always available, and can transform an ordinary dish into something special. Back in my school days when we had very little money, canned mushrooms and chopped onions transformed our drab, weekly hamburger steak into something much more palatable. But in France, even the name of this ordinary mushroom is elegant, champignons. They are grown indoors on elaborately prepared compost mixtures covered with casing soil. Temperature and humidity must be just right and growing them is subject to a lot of problems. Most major mushroom growing locations in the USA are located near race tracks or other areas where horses are plentiful. So now you know what the main ingredient of the compost is and why you should wash all of them well! You also can see another reason why I do not like raw mushrooms in salads.

Many supermarkets are also offering "Crimini" mushrooms which are the same except they are not white, but a tan color and some call them Agaricus brunnescens. They are reputed to have a more intense flavor. Wondering about this and their more expensive price (6 oz cost the same as 8 oz of the other), I conducted a scientific experiment. I sliced two of each kind of agaric in 1/4" slices and sauteed each batch separately in flavorless vegetable oil for exactly 5 min. As I was slicing them, I noticed that the Crimini were denser and more compact. Using only a little salt for seasoning, I and my faithful lab assistant, the BW, tasted each batch separately. The Crimini retained their denser texture in the mouth. The BW, who didn't know what she was supposed to taste found the Crimini decidedly less flavorful. I had to agree and thus neither of us could back up the "more intense flavor" claim made by the purveyors. I personally think the appeal is from the seller's point of view, i.e., being darker in color and any blotches that show up so easily in the all-white agarics aren't visible.

Portobellos are also commonly available. Actually they are simply extra large specimens of the store-bought Criminis. I have seen them whole, sliced, or dried. I can not detect any difference in taste from the "regulars". One of them might be 4-6" across so you would not need many to make a dozen. Ideal for stuffing it would seem.

Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus/sapidus complex) show up either fresh or dried in my local supermarket. The seller's big job is to convince the public these are worth buying and eating. When we have cooked wild specimens at foray tastings, they compare quite favorably with many other so-so species available.

Cultivated mushroom kits that are easily obtained commercially from mail order houses. These firms offer in addition to many of the ones mentioned here, a veritable array of Oyster "species" in almost any color of the rainbow, pink, golden, lilac, etc. I have not tried any of these but assume their tastes are comparable to the usual species. A species available commercially is called Brick Caps (Naematoloma sublateritium)

The Orientals

Other fresh mushrooms that have become more common are Shiitakes. These Japanese mushrooms are comparatively easy to grow on old logs and rural American entrepreneurs are beginning to grow and market them around here. This is Lentinus edodes and it has a firmer texture than does your usual store-bought species. The stems are a bit tough and I recommend slicing the caps vertically into about 1/4-1/2 inch slices before cooking. They are great stir-fried with vegetables or pasta. If you find fresh ones for sale, they freeze well for later use, but more often they are available in the dried form. If you asked for Chinese or Japanese mushrooms in a specialty store, this is probably what you would get. Shiitakes offer a pronounced flavor and it doesn't take many to flavor a dish. The dried form will require re-hydrating by pouring just enough boiling water over them to cover them and waiting about 20 min. Always save any liquors for cooking down or adding to the dish or using elsewhere.

One of my favorites is the Chinese Forest Mushoom, sometimes called Wood Ears or Cloud Ears (Auricularia polytricha). This is another species that grows on trees, but it is available in our area only in the dried form. It is similar, but much larger than the species found wild in our area A. auricula or Judas Ear. After re-hydration the Chinese variety is much larger than our species and just a few small dried pieces will swell up to many times the original, dried size. This is a mushroom for people who like to experiment with textures. It is a bit on the gelatinous or tough side, but remove and discard the knotty stem and slice the mushrooms after re-hydration. I savor this species for its woody-smoky flavor and use them often in Chinese soups, stir fried vegetables, or for adding great flavor to meat stews. It is usually available in small packages and is more expensive than Shiitakes. On the other hand a little bit goes a long way after swelling. Incidentally, I recommend storing all dried mushrooms in the freezer just to keep the bugs out of them.

Another oriental mushroom you can find without too much trouble is canned Padi-straw Mushrooms, so named for the substrate (straw from rice paddies) on which it is grown in Asia. If you like moo-goo gai pan in Chinese restaurants or see very small closed umbrella mushrooms in a Chinese dish, that's it, Volvariella volvacea. For me, these guys don't have a whole lot of flavor, but I have never tasted fresh ones. If I use them at all, it is only for texture, preferring the flavor of fresh button A. bisporus instead. They can be very expensive--$3.60 at Kroger's for a 15 oz can, but imported brands found in Asian markets are around $1.80/can.

There are other Oriental varieties more common on the West Coast, e.g., Matsutakes (Tricholoma matsutake) and Enokitakese or Enoki (Flammulina velutipes. Enokis may sometimes be found in local supermarket stores. It is rather bland and is used mainly for appearance, texture or in salads.

The Europeans

Porcini - you should have no trouble finding these dried mushrooms in any Italian market. They are the exquisite Boletus edulis. I have found those imported from Italy as well as something resembling Porcini from Chile (and much cheaper!). If your Italian grocer buys in bulk, you will get a better price, but if they are pre-packaged in 1 or 2 oz packs, be prepared to spend an arm and a leg. The good news is that a little bit of these goes a long way after they are re-hydrated. This is the best mushroom, commonly available, money can buy.

Chanterelles are often found in dried form. Personally, I feel that the process of drying causes them to lose more flavor in this species than any other. Since these are not grown commercially (yet) and finding marketable quantities is hard (they get wormy fast!), expect to pay more for them. But if you can get them fresh, they are excellent. Even in a stew, they announce their presence with authority. European restaurants feature them in many dishes. French chefs call them Girolles while the Germanic/Slavic chefs call them Pfifferlings.

YOU CAN'T AFFORD THEM

Morels - yes I have even seen these in dried form a few times at some of the tonier markets I browse (but don't buy) in. Personally, I feel that breaking down and buying morels is an admission of failure as a mighty hunter and provider for the table. You will need a lot of bucks (about fifteen of them!) for a small 1 oz bag of what look like dried Morchella esculenta.

Speaking of cost, how much do some of these items set you back comparatively? A recent mushroom walk of my local supermarket turned up these prices:for fresh mushrooms:

Agarics $ .23/oz

Oysters $1.65/ oz

Crimini $.25/oz

Portobello $.75/oz

Shiitakes $.37/oz

I have found dried Shiitakes and Wood Ears in Chinese markets far cheaper, but the quality is sometimes poor, i.e., the Shiitakes may be small and I have seen Wood Ears about the size of our Judas Ears which makes me wonder if they were the real thing. Packages in Oriental markets often are not labeled or if they are, not in English.

Questions often arise as to just how nutritious mushrooms are. First of all, mushrooms are mostly water--anywhere from 85 to 90 %. Thus for every 100 grams of mushrooms (about 3.5 oz or a little more than two shot glasses to put it in everyday terms), only 10-15 grams have any stuff in it. A quarter AND a nickel weigh about 10 grams if you taking notes. Now then, most of that is indigestible chitin. These same 3.5 oz of mushrooms will only contain about 30-35 calories, but only if (and it's a big if) you don't saute‚ them in butter or oil. At this point I would imagine that most of you just got up and changed to another channel.

Now supposing you compare the relative differences in these materials among some well known mushroom species:

Species          Proteins    Fat   Sugars     Chitin    Minerals
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Porcini            4.0       .2     3.4          .7          .7
Agarics            4.3       .2     4.0         1.0          .6
Armillaria mellea  2.8       .5     1.8         3.8         1.1
Chanterelles       2.8       .2     4.1         1.3         1.1
Morels             3.4       .2     4.7          .7          .9
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Note that Armillaria (not available commercially) contains five times the amount of indigestible chitin as Morels or Porcini and hence may cause some belly banging on these grounds alone.

Bon appetit!

THE ICE MAN COMETH

I suppose by now everyone has heard about the frozen corpse found in the Italian Alps in 1991. One of the most amazing archaeological finds ever, it was the body of a young man almost perfectly preserved. The clothes he was dressed in and the artifacts he was carrying were also well preserved and give important indications that this man lived nearly 5,000 years ago give or take a couple of hundred. The young man had been wounded and apparently got stranded in the high mountains by a sudden storm. Perhaps exhausted by exposure he lay down to sleep, his last. The snows that covered him that night became an unruffled blanket for five millenia.

"So what has this to do with mushrooms?", you rudely intrude. Among the interesting artifacts surrounding him was a bit of fungus hanging from a thong from his waist. Somebody identified this as the Birch Polypore (Piptoporus betulinus) and it has raised all sorts of questions as to why he was carrying it. Let's examine some of these one by one. The Birch Polypore is typically 2-5" wide, but can vary 1-10". It is hemispherical or kidney-shaped bracket fungus that is attached to the tree by a rudimentary stalk. They are produced during wet conditions and although they are not perennial (adding new layers every year), they will dry and remain on a tree for a few years. It has a dingy white to gray-brown upper surface, a white to cream underneath pore surface, and most distinctively, a curved, inrolled margin which overlaps the tube layer. When fresh the upper surface is somewhat soft in a leathery way, but soon becomes tough, but not as dense or woody as Artist Conks. If you live near a birch woods, it is not too hard to find this fungus. It has a very tough leathery to woody consistency.

1) Food - heavens, no. The piece wasn't that large and as any examination of contemporary specimens would show, this species is far too tough for chewing, being mostly indigestible chitin.

2) First aid kit - although some ripe puffball spores have styptic and blood coagulative properties, there certainly would not be plentiful spores from this species. Whether it is styptic (constricts blood vessels) or not, I can't say, but the next time I see one, I'll take it home and put with my shaving kit. (To be continued . . .)

3) The ancients knew about antibiotics 5000 years before we did - This is a variant of #2 and is the most fanciful (and most common) hypothesis put forth. It is favored by the anti-science crowd. In the first place, even for the same mass of Penicillium, very, very little active ingredient is present and far below any effective therapeutic dose. If you ever have taken antibiotics, you will recall how much of it and how long you had to take it. Secondly, it could not be taken internally unless used to make a boiled extract and would only be useful as a skin application and how do you apply a piece of woody mushroom to an infected cut? The real danger from a skin infection is what was once called systemic "blood poisoning" and I wonder if the ancients would have associated the initial skin wound with the later systemic fever and prostration.

4) An amulet or charm - possibly. Who knows what sort of mysticism and thoughts went through the minds of people back then? According to the June '93 National Geographic, which has a great story on this man, there is good evidence that people worshiped stones back them. Could he have used this to ward off evil spirits or insure his well being? It obviously didn't work, whatever his beliefs. However, the man was carrying other artifacts, man-made, which suggests that had he believed in charms, he probably would have a man made one.

5) Tinder for fire starting - this is my own suggestion and one based on actual experience. From my backpacking and portaging days in the North country, I well know the feeling of trying to start a fire from materials that have been rained on for three days and I had matches! But I always managed and one of the reasons I was always successful was because it was so easy to find combustible materials, e.g., birch bark, dry wood under old logs, and dried puffballs and polypores (conks). If so, he would have also have needed something finer and fibrous to get the initial blaze going, but he had a knife and could have whittled some shavings to light the polypore which would have provided enough heat to ignite something larger.

Don't like any of these? Well, send in your own suggestion. For all suggestions received deemed worthy of publication, we will award the sender with his own Birch Polypore to wear on your belt.

CORMORANT-A-MY-HOUSE

There was a recent, unusual sighting of Double-crested Cormorants in the Upper Deckers Creek watershed in Preston County, West Virginia. This is sort of like seeing a Prairie Chicken in Memphis, but anything is possible, I suppose.

A Cormorant is quite a bird, actually, and there are six species recorded for North America, the Double-crested one being by far the most common and is the only one you could expect to see inland around fresh water. I have seen four of these species.

The fish-eating Double-crested Cormorant lives in and around water and can be distinguished by its large, greenish-black plumage, a slender hooked-tip bill, orange facial skin, and webbed feet set well back on its body. It is named for the two small tufts of feathers on either side of its head, which appear on the adults in spring plumage. The bird can frequently be observed standing erect on rocks or posts, sometimes in a spread-eagle posture drying its feathers; or swimming low in the water, often with only its head and neck exposed. On the water, it can be distinguished from loons by the distinct upward angle of its head and bill.

This species has had its ups and down in the US interior. Although present in Lake of the Woods, Ontario for a long time, no individuals were seen in the Great Lakes until they began to colonize the western end of Lake Superior around 1913. This habitat was successful and the species spread eastward through the Great Lakes even to Lake Ontario. By 1950 everyone agreed that there had been a population explosion.

Initially there was a large outpouring of complaints from fisherfolk who felt these birds were competing for the desirable harvest species of fish, however wildlife studies on pellets and what not failed to support this claim. The preferred foods of these birds were alewife, perch, and rainbow smelt.

Still, control measures were instituted, some official and some not, and nesting success was greatly decreased. Soon though, natural nesting failure primarily due to eggshell thinning took over in the 60's and 70's and the Double-crested Cormorant population crashed. As with other fish eating birds, egg shell thinning was due to contamination of DDT breakdown products and PCBs.

Once DDT was banned and the toxicity and sources of PCBs identified and controlled, this species rebounded smartly. Oh boy did they rebound! Today we see another crest in populations of Double-crested Cormorants and the West Virginia sighting may have been a part of that.

As before, fisherfolk are complaining, but most of their concerns are not justified (the birds eat very few salmon fry for instance), but there is a great concern remaining that the populations are decimating pan fry species such as yellow perch and small-mouthed bass. It takes about a pound a day to feed EACH adult cormorant during nesting season.

Another documented problem caused by the nesting birds is the vegetative destruction caused by their nesting habits. These birds are colonial nesters and the combined weight of their nests result in breaking of limbs and even entire trees. Add to that the tons of excrement that befouls and kills herbaceous plants and you can see a huge environmental effect. This is especially a problem on small islands and this leads to subsequent erosion.

I lived for 8 years on the North Carolina Outer Banks and in that time I could detect annual increases in this species during the winter. Huge, huge numbers of birds spend the winter in the Pamlico Sound where they spend the night. In the morning they fly out and raft up in the ocean. Towards the end of my tenure there (early 00's), I would marvel on my morning trip south along the coastal highway and as I began my climb onto the lengthy Oregon Inlet bridge to Pea Island I could see enormous numbers of cormorants leaving their nightly habitat, flying east over the bridge to the ocean side. The flocks filled the sky in continuous lines from one horizon to the other.

Now something has to be feeding those enormous numbers of fish eaters and I do not know if the salt water species that feed them have been as well studied as the Great Lakes species. Also, what do you suppose the effects of all that poop has on the estuary? It is already assaulted enough with pig farm run off (a big lobby in NC).

So what is the next stop in cormorant natural history? Huge populations of these birds would not be welcomed in WV habitats like New River, Ohio River Islands, or Cheat Lake.

Stay tuned.

LET'S GO BOG SLOGGIN'

Well, another bog slog under my belt. For some reason, I have this proclivity to explore bogs, i.e., wetland habitats populated by unique plants and creatures adapted to living in a semi-aquatic or at least very wet environment. Several things are required to take part in a bog slog, chief of which is to try to find one. Bogs were anathema to our immediate ancestors, engineers, and realtors. Such a waste, in their eyes. Consequently much of what were former bogs, were drained and either plowed up or paved over with concrete. Sometimes a bog will disappear naturally and succumb to its own success. If there is no water outlet and no new water coming in, the growth of plants gradually matures and dies, paving the way for a new layer to take its place, and so on, layer upon layer, until finally the bog no longer exists. Consequently, bogs tend to be off the beaten path and you must work hard to find or get to one. One of my favorites, located in southwestern Pennsylvania, is reached by a long walk to a landmark, from which you must take off at a pre-determined compass heading to get there. So, if you know how to use a compass, getting there is half the fun.

Next, you must be prepared for wet feet. Taking a step in a bog often means sinking in over your shoe tops. Or higher! They don't call them bog slogs for nothing. Some sloggers wear boots which serves only to make the water line higher. Water can come in over boot tops as well and a water-filled boot is no fun. I prefer just to wear my grungiest tennies (n.b., all of my tennies are grungy so making such a choice is difficult). Many of the most interesting plants are low-growing in which case, you must get down on your knees to examine or photograph the beauty you just found. Remember what happened to your shoes? Well then, wet knees are de riguer as well. Occasionally you either stumble or sink well below expectation which can result in a backwards fall, so a wet bottom is a sign you have had some fun! Did I mention that the territory being explored was pretty wet? Well, pretty wet can mean pretty bugs. Lots of 'em. A little bug spray or a lot of resistance to being bugged are also helpful things to take along.

Approaching a bog usually means you are traveling through transition zones to get there. The edges of a bog were once part of the bog in previous times, but now support the growth of new flora which consists primarily of shrubby species. This means that although you have been proceeding nicely enough through open woods, now you are fighting thick underbrush and getting slapped in the face by branches bent forwards by the guy walking ahead of you. Sometime the approach is pleasant like walking through waist-high Cinnamon Ferns or it can be physically challenging like trying to find your way through a Rhododendron or Mountain Laurel jumble (they don't call them laurel hells for nothing). Like I say, getting there is half the fun.

In recent weeks I have had the opportunity to take part in two bog slogs, one to Chalk Hill Bog near Fort Necessity National Historic Park close to Farmington PA and more recently to Christner Bog near Pennsylvania's highest point, Mt. Davis. At 3,213 feet above sea level, Mt. Davis isn't terribly high for the Appalachians of which it is a part nor does it stand out either because the "peak" is but a bump in a long ridge of the Laurel Highlands in Forbes State Forest. Don't expect to find Christner Bog on any map; you have to go there with someone who has been there before. In fact, the official PA state map does not even clearly show how to find Mt. Davis! Our leader had a GPS thingy in which he had recorded co-ordinants obtained from some one else, but I consider this cheating and missing out on a lot of the stumbling around trying to find just where in the heck it was.

A date, time, and place were set to rally and off we went down the requisite back roads to the jumping off point. After briefly summiting Mt. Davis, our pull off was but a short distance further. Dense, mature forest completely surrounded the road as well as Mt. Davis and were it not for a sign proclaiming the 3,213 datum, you would not know you had achieved such a remarkable geographic experience! Since we were there for a botanic experience, you can start looking as soon as you get out of the car. On the roadside were two plants not in most people's floristic acumen, Poke Milkweed and Hogpeanut. I immediately recognized the distinctive seed pods of an Asclepias, but I was unfamiliar with this particular species. Our leader chose to take us on a dead reckoning course set by the GPS task master. This resulted in a lot of branch fighting, root tripping, ankle-twisting and what not, but a number of colorful mushrooms greeted us along the way, e.g. several colorful russulas, scads of amanitas, particularly the Blusher, and some small waxycaps. Check out the photo on the left of a Yellow Waxycap. Of particular interest to me was an otherwise undistinguished and often-overlooked species known as Slippery Caps.

At last, the bog appeared and we were greeted by an amazingly dense stand of Golden Club which must have been a spectacular sight when in bloom two months previously. This species has not been found often in West Virginia. My only experience with it has been in a backwater of the Cheat River near Holly Meadows in Tucker County. Cotton Grass here and there signaled what we were in store for a little later when we entered the larger glade and found it everywhere. I consider this species a friendly marker of other bogs and high places I have known. From this little sub-bog of the larger, we re-entered the laurel hell and proceeded further along our way. I periodically made note of my reverse compass heading as a precaution thinking that the leader's GPS thingy's battery might zonk out or else he could drop it in the water! My compass still works under water after repeated dunkings :) After a few slaps in the face by laurel boughs, we found the larger part of the bog (see photo above left) and I have never seen so many Pitcher Plants! They were everywhere. The lighter elements are either Cotton Grass heads or Pitcher Plant blooms mixed together - a wonderful sight. In the past, the only ones I had ever seen previously were single clumps here and there as they do in Chalk Hill Bog. It is an interesting species. You always find it in boggy situations and its nutritional requirements must be very exact. I have known this species to have been deliberately planted or introduced into other bogs nearby and they just held on for years before spreading and then only slightly. But here in Christner, it was Pitcher Plant heaven. It is an insectivorous plant that grows in nitrogen-poor soil. To supplement its nutrition for this essential element, it has evolved a curious method of trapping insects which it dissolves as nutritional supplements. The insect is attracted to the flower or to the sap secreted in water caught in the curious pitcher-shaped leaves forming a rosette at the base of the plant. Anyway, the bug falls into the soup held by the leaves, it drowns, it is dissolved, end of bug. See a close-up on the left.

Another neat insectivorous plant requires keen eyesight to find, Sundews. Each plant consists of a rosette of leaves on stems arising from a central point. On the tips of each leaf are tiny drops of a fluid that traps and dissolves tiny bugs. Notice that the plant is a light red color and this blends in so well with the surrounding sphagnum moss that it is often difficult to see them. There are three species of these interesting little plants, one of which and maybe two that have been introduced from elsewhere.

Other interesting flowers are found in these bogs, e.g., Rose Pogonia, Narrow-leaved Gentian, Grass Pinks, Clammy Azalea and many more have been seen on recent slogs. These are indicator plants, i.e., their distribution has declined markedly since records have begun to be kept and this signals an irretrievable loss that can not be sustained. Contrary to the U.S. Corps of Engineers' opinion, you can not create a wetland with a bulldozer. It takes decades if not centuries to evolve these habitats. It behooves us to take care of the few that we have remaining.

I'VE TAKEN A LIKIN' TO LICHENS

One of the most interesting subjects I took in the seventh grade was Geography. More than learning about exotic and foreign locations all over the globe, was an introduction to understanding how climate, physical forces, and the advent of biologic organisms have shaped our planet. I was especially intrigued about how solid rock, once it cooled, could be turned into the earth that I knew, the soil I planted seeds in, which grew the grass I had to mow, or which formed the basis of the playground we spent hours on. Freeze-thaw cycles that could rupture rocks seemed self-evident as did the enormous pressure exerted by roots from plants that had taken seed in cracks of the rocks. But what really seized my imagination was the effect of mysterious organisms called lichens that were able to colonize on bare rock surfaces and through their erosive action, reduce rock surfaces to soil.

It is the pioneering capacity of lichens which begins the laborious and time-consuming task of soil building. Thanks to the erosive effects of wind, temperature extremes, and things which break big rocks down into smaller and smaller rocks- i.e, lichens - we have an environment that can now be a host to an infinite array of other life forms. Where could a tropical forest grow without soil to say nothing of a dazzling array of orchids that grow on the plants of that forest? And where could the enormous quantity of wheat and other grains grow that have fed us since the dawn of civilization and even before? None of these would be possible without soil.

Lichens are the most hardy pioneers you will find growing on the surface of the earth - the searing deserts of the Southwest, the frozen tundra of the far north, the wind-swept balds of the Appalachians at altitudes over 6,000', as well as the mostly barren skerries and reefs of the oceans. Owing to their unique construction and biochemical composition, one can find a lichen almost anywhere where there is fresh water except where man has fouled the environment with air pollution. As tolerant as they are for climatic extremes they are hypersensitive to sulfur dioxide, heavy metal precipitates, and fly ash. They are barometers for the prudent - when you see evidence of dying lichens or worse, no lichens at all, you had better start asking questions. (The lichen above was found out in the Arizona desert, surviving in the extreme aridity and heat.)

From the strictly utilitarian point of view, a whole culture of northern people, the Inuits, have often subsisted on eating lichens and indeed lichens have helped many survive such inhospitable climes in times of isolation, and without them, many an unlucky explorer, e.g., Scott, Lord Franklin, etc., did not. The whole food chain of the northern tundra depends on lichens for they serve as the basic food for caribou and reindeer. Various cultures around the world have used lichens as part of their diet as have a variety of rodents, herptiles, and insects.

Something vastly intriguing about lichens has to do with their cellular composition. Although they are given genus and species names, are recognized by their individual, constant morphology, have reproductive structures, etc., i.e., all the usual things characteristic of any living organism, they are the unique product of two vastly different biologic entities, a fungus and an alga! The fungus provides minerals, protection, and a fixed place in the environment while the alga provides oxygen, sugars, and other necessities of life. Quite a marriage, actually! You can separate the fungal and algal partners and grow each separately in the lab and, here is one of the great phantasmagoric happenings in biology, when you put them back together they do not grow as two separate entities, but rather they morph back into the habit of the lichen species from which they originally came! Some see this partnership as mutual symbiosis and others see it as parasitism, i.e., the fungus is parasitizing the alga. If that it parasitism, it has no other parallel in all of nature.

In addition to providing a soil-manufacturing mechanism and a food source, lichens also serve to colonize formerly barren wastelands, i.e., they are often the first pioneers in what will become a steady, but changing succession of flora. I live near a former artificial lake that had been drained when the dam(n) structures decayed past usefulness. This left a largely barren, clay base on which hardly anything grew. Among the hardy pioneers of Brookside Alder and "Poverty Grass" were of course lichens. Not only do the lichens help stabilize the soil from wind erosion, some species have the capacity to fix or add nitrogen back into the soil, thanks to the blue-green algae present in some species.

There are four major lichen types as well as a few lesser oddballs (isn't that always the case?). Those that are leafy and easily detached from the bark, soil, rocks, or whatever they are growing on are called Foliose lichens. The illustration at left is an example that is found growing on trees throughout most of the eastern U.S. and southern Canada. It is the Green Shield Lichen. Its characteristic yellow-green color and rosette shape is found commonly growing on tree bark. It is very sensitive to air pollution.

A very interesting group is the Fruticose lichens which consist of those that are tufted, pendant, or shrubby and consist of many branches, often with extremely fanciful fruiting bodies grossly visible. A good example of "fanciful" is the one pictured at the top, the Common Pixie Cup Lichen. The lichen at left is one of the most easily recognized of all lichens. It is called "British Soldiers" in references to the colorful red fruiting bodies' resemblance to the British Redcoats of colonial times. The most interesting thing about this lichen is that it does not grow in Britain! Love it.

A smaller, but very interesting group is the Umbilicate lichens, so called because they are attached to their substrate by a small (compared to their large size) holdfast or belly-button. Many are very easily recognized and are found in very shaded, moist locations. Some species were especially prized by pioneer women who extracted colorful dyes from their substance to dye home-spun fibers, like the one at left, Rock Tripe.



The hardest group to work with is the Crustose lichens because they can not easily be removed from what they are growing on; you need a geologist's hammer to break off pieces of rock or what not and Rangers and Park Superintendents take a dim view of me taking a chip off of some historic monument :). Also, the identification requires more technical skill, more microscopy, and even biochemical testing. Nevertheless, they are intriguing and worth the effort. The specimen at left is an easily recognized Concentric Boulder Lichen.

Thanks to some time on my hands, the hankering to explore wild places, and the availability of some first class resources to help me, I have been endeavoring lately to learn the names of some of these fantastic organisms in my midst. Somewhat daunting is the need to acquaint myself with a lexicon of technical terms like isidia, soredia, squamules, podetia, etc. Also, it is extremely useful to acquire a dissecting microscope, that is one that provides clear enlargement 5-20 X. I have no excuse now, I've got to get busy - there are an estimated 3600 North American species of lichens north of Mexico. Speaking of excuses, please excuse me, I have some specimens collected yesterday in a wild outing I must now examine.

OSPREYS ARE WONDERFUL

Ospreys are some of the most amazing birds I have ever encountered. The first time I ever saw one was when I was a 12 year old kid on vacation way up in the Northwoods of Quebec. It happened the first time I ever took out Dad's 17' square-stern canoe with 3 hp motor. I headed up to the Narrows and parked near one of our lunch sites and soon became aware of a loud thwack on the other side of the lake and when I looked I saw an Osprey take off. It soared high, circled and then dove again with another loud thwack. It was awesome and although I have seen Ospreys many times since, nothing equaled the magic of that first moment.

Subsequent sightings of Ospreys were few and far between. For one thing, I did not live in Osprey habitat. In my present location, if I saw an Osprey at all, it would be during migration. I saw my first WV Osprey on a wonderful early spring canoe trip through Canaan Valley many years ago. But more than that, for much of my time, Ospreys were in serious decline and their populations tanked, largely due to pesticide accumulation and the effects of those chemicals on nesting success. That bugaboo is now behind us although there is still pressure from the agricultural community to reinstate the use of DDT.

For eight years, I lived on North Carolina's Outer Banks where Ospreys were alive and well. There was abundant opportunity to observe these magnificent birds. We lived in a boating community which consisted of numerous canals and land projections and I took an annual nest census each year of just our harborside community. My original count was 24 nests, but even in this community, that number declined; it was down to 17 at last count. New construction and hurricanes accounted for most of the loss, but incredibly, what did NOT affect nesting success was human activity. Boats were going in and out all day, people were mowing the grass right under the nesting platforms, loud construction was going on nearby, etc., but the Ospreys seemed to adapt to all of this human noise, more so than I perhaps.

Osprey watching became a major activity for me and I witnessed some of the most amazing things about them. We were lucky to have a tall nest platform in the vacant lot just next door to us. We could peer into each other's bedrooms, so to speak. Since Ospreys have been shown to mate for life, we could always count on the same pair returning each spring. I kept track of when our first Osprey would appear on nest and it was usually the last days of February or the first of March. After Osprey young have fledged and are on their own (in early to mid-August), the adults would depart for their leisurely migration to wintering grounds. Radio tracking data show that the pairs of Ospreys do not "cohabit" or even have anything to do with each other after nesting chores are finished. And why should they? They go on separate vacations. You and your spouse might want to give that a try :). The reasons for being together simply are no longer required. The tracking data show that the paths the birds quickly diverge. One partner may winter in Belize and the other hundreds of miles away in southern Mexico, for example.

Now here is the kicker. The female would show up on our next door nest platform within 24 ours of the male, How do they do that? How would two birds who spent the winter hundreds of miles apart arrive at their nesting site so close together at the same finite spot on the planet within 24 hours of each other? Remarkable. But then Ospreys are remarkable birds.

During my first summer, I would occasionally see an Osprey flying low over the water, skimming it with its talons making a streak in the water. At first, I thought it was "fishing", but this did not jibe with my youthful observations in Quebec nor what I had read about their food-gathering methods. Well, when you want to find out something like this, none of the current guide books will help you - all they will do is point out in minute detail what the bird looks like all the way down to its innermost feathers and inter-molt appearances, etc. All very boring to this observer. There is only one place to go and that is the monumental multi-volume series published back in the 20's and 30's by Bent. In my copy, I found the answer. It seems that the Ospreys are "washing" their feet getting rid of the slimy fish parts wedged between their talons. Makes sense. After tearing up to five pounds of fish per day for the young and each adult, things would get a little gamey up in the nest. I have seen all manner of discarded fish parts below our platform so can only imagine how "ripe" it must be within the nest :). Not all the feeding takes place in the nest. The above pic shows one having breakfast on our back deck railing.

Speaking of which - our Ospreys did not live alone. Each summer, they had some pretty raucous neighbors which they seemed to tolerate if not encourage. Commensalism is a great word in biology and means "eating at the same table". A good example is the association of Ospreys with House Sparrows. These latter birds are the mice of the bird world who have adapted quite well to the refuse of civilization including the messes we leave behind. Voracious at the bird feeders put out to attract more interesting American birds, House Sparrows are considered as vermin by most bird watchers. Well they do just fine cleaning up the gunk in an Osprey nest. They build their nests right within the sticks and branches that the Ospreys have used to construct their own nest! All day long the House Sparrows fly in and out of the Osprey nest "basement" without so much as attracting a doleful eye from their landlords. The House Sparrow benefits from having a well-protected home already built for them as well as all the food they could possibly want. Hey, three squares and a roof. The Ospreys benefit from having these scavengers help tidy up the joint.

Do I like to watch Ospreys? You betcha - more fun than just counting them or checking them off on a list.

WAITER, THERE'S AN ANT IN MY MUSHROOMS

Let’s face it - mushroom hunting is a competitive activity. You have to find morels before your neighbor does or the turkeys scratch up your patch looking for acorns. But it goes further than that, too, because when you do locate some prized species, you have to get them before the “worms” (actually, larval stages of insects) chew them up from the inside. When you get right down to it, much of the protein you ingest from wild mushrooms is probably of such origin any way :).

Just as humans have learned how to cultivate mushrooms to avoid the vagaries of braving the wilds to find their own, so to have well known species of certain insects, namely a group of ants, the leaf cutters, which eat fungi that they purposefully cultivate or farm! Some white lab coat types from a lab in Germany have gone further afield, i.e., south east Asia, and have described other species of ants that simply eat mushrooms that they find in the wild, just like you! One species (Euprenolepis procera for those of you who just have to know these things) are keen mushroom hunters as they roam through the rain forests of Malaysia. Once that individual has been consumed, they move on in search of others.

In the lab, these critters can live entirely on mushrooms and can they stow them away! The report indicated that they can scarf down a 10 cm cap in about 3 hours. A typical colony can polish off several specimens per night. And they have nothing on you when it comes to preferring delectables. They even have their own list of preferred species.

Now try this on for size. What if some mushrooms whose toxins are poorly characterized are not innate with the fungal species, but rather are introduced by some other partner, in this case the ants? This idea is not so crazy when you consider the Central and South American species of so-called “Arrow Poison Frogs”. Some of these species have skin secretions so toxic, they can not even be safely handled when caught in the wild. Curiously, when specimens of certain of these skin-toxic species are taken to labs or zoos to be raised in captivity, they lose their toxicity. It turns out that the toxin is picked up from the environment from certain species of beetles, ants, etc. which constitutes the frogs’ normal diet obtained from their native environment!

It has long been known that certain fungal species are reportedly toxic to some individuals, but are eaten with relish and impunity by others. What accounts for the difference? Maybe to "toxic" ones are being goobered by some tricky ants or even the insect larvae infesting their innards!

Remember, you read it here first!